(By Tsem Rinpoche and Pastor Shin Tan)

Since the introduction of Buddhism to China by Emperor Ming of Han (28–75 CE), the religion has shaped Chinese culture in a variety of areas, such as art, politics, literature and philosophy. The availability of large quantities of Buddhist scriptures in the Chinese language and the introduction of translations over the centuries made China an important proponent of Buddhism in the world, having disseminated Buddhism to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other places.

Below are 10 contemporary Chinese Buddhist scholars who continue to be regarded as beacons, bringing the light of Dharma to China and to the world.

1. Master Yinguang 印光法师 (1862-1940)
2. Venerable Hongyi 弘一法师 (1880-1942)
3. Venerable Nenghai 能海法师 (1886-1967)
4. Venerable Fazun 法尊法师 (1902-1980)
5. Venerable Yinshun 印顺法师 (1906-2004)
6. Zhao Puchu 赵朴初 (1907-2000)
7. Venerable Longlian 隆莲法师 (1909-2006)
8. Master Nan Huai-Chin 南怀瑾 (1918-2012)
9. Professor Fang Litian 方立天 (1933 -2014)
10. Professor Wang Bangwei 王邦维 (b.1950)

1. Master Yinguang 印光法师 (1862-1940)

Born as Zhao Shao Yi (赵绍伊) in the Yang County of Shanxi province in 1862, he was the youngest son in the family. Suffering from a debilitating eye disease as a child and later a serious illness at 14, Master Yinguang studied Buddhist scriptures to improve his health. At 20, he left his family to go to the Xi’an area of the Zhongnan Mountains, where he ordained as a Buddhist monk at the Lian Hua Dong Temple (莲花洞寺).

Master Yinguang later became a wandering monk, travelling to and visiting various temples, including the Lian Hua Temple (莲花寺) in the Zhuxi County of Hubei province, and the Shuang Xi Temple in the Ankang County of Shanxi province. At Shuang Xi Temple, he received the higher Buddhist ordination (具足戒) under Vinaya Master Yin Hai Dian (印海定律师). He then went into intensive retreat at Tai Yi Feng in the Zhongnan Mountains for five years. Later, he went to Zi Fu Temple (资福寺) in northern Beijing to study the Pure Land teachings, and dedicated himself to chanting the Buddha’s name and studying the Mahayana sutras. He also spent time in the Tripitaka Tower of Fa Yu Temple (法雨寺) of Pu Tuo Shan (普陀山) in Zhejiang province studying the Buddhist sutras.

Seeing that the Buddhadharma was going into a decline, he encouraged the reprinting of thousands of Buddhist books including those from other philosophical schools, and advocated methods for inner transformation and development of morality. The most famous books were the Four Instructions of Yuan Liaofan《袁了凡四训》and the Qing scholar Zhou Mengyan’s (1656 – 1739) Compendium of Anshi《安士全书》. The former text explained Buddhism from a Confucian viewpoint, whilst the latter explained Buddhism from a Taoist perspective. This approach established a common ground among the Buddhists, Taoists, and Confucianists.

His friend, Gao Henian, later brought a selection of Yinguang’s writings to Shanghai, published under the names “the ever humble monk” (常惭) and the “Putuo monk” in the February and March 1913 issues of the Buddhist Studies Magazine《佛学丛报》. Considered the earliest Chinese language periodical to be devoted to Buddhist studies, this magazine made a distinctive public claim for the relevance of Buddhism and open communication among Buddhists from a Shanghai-centred urban perspective.

In 1917, Xu Weiru (徐蔚如) edited and published The Letters of Master Yinguang《印光法师信稿》and, through his Beijing Scripture Carving House, produced the first edition of the major compilation, entitled The Collected Writings of Master Yinguang《印光大师文钞》. Master Yinguang viewed his writings as texts to be “read closely” and reflected upon, leading readers to “awaken to understanding” and “act accordingly,” so he and his followers worked hard to reproduce the Collected Writings and disseminate them cheaply or free of charge. Master Yinguang was so impressive that an official he met wrote a cheque on the spot for 1,000 yuan to support the monk’s printing projects.

Since the publication of the 1920 edition of the Collected Writings by China’s largest commercial publisher of the time, the Commercial Press (商务印书馆), the book became a Buddhist mass-publishing sensation, with multiple editions in large quantities through the mid-1920s. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Honghua Society (弘化社), the wing to promote and proliferate Master Yinguang’s Pure Land movement, produced and disseminated the volume widely, resulting in the Collected Writings being one of the most widely printed and circulated religious texts of the Republican era.

Many Shanghai lay Buddhists took Master Yinguang as their spiritual guide, so Master Yinguang became a frequent visitor, and an apartment was constructed for him at the Taiping Monastery in the Hongkou district. In 1922 and 1923, Master Yinguang preached in Dinghai county prisons at the request of the local magistrate. This led to the establishment of the Jiangsu Prisoner Reformation Society (江苏监狱感化会), which focuses on sending speakers to prisoners, encouraging them to practise Buddhism.

As one disciple recalled: “Lots of letters arrived every day requesting instructions”; another wrote, “The good men and faithful women lining up at the gates and walls yearning to see him daily became a burgeoning multitude. Some crossed the seas and climbed the mountains to request to be initiates.” It is estimated that Master Yinguang had 100,000 “initiates” and several hundreds of thousands of followers concentrated in the Lower Yangzi region by the 1930s.

Master Yinguang and his writings

As Master Yinguang was a private person, he grew weary of the demands on his time and the flood of letters. He moved to Bao Guo Temple (报国寺) in Suzhou (苏州) in 1930, and went into retreat. However, the community at the temple grew in the ensuing years, and the main hall had to be rebuilt to accommodate the increased numbers. Master Yinguang was persuaded to move to Lingyan Temple (灵岩寺) as a Japanese bomb landed near Bao Guo Temple in 1937. Despite the Japanese occupation in the area, Master Yinguang managed to organise large-scale events, such as a major assembly for world peace with seven ritual practice sites at Lingyan Temple, which lasted for 108 days between May 26 and September 12, 1939. Lingyan Temple became known as an important centre for the Pure Land school in China.

Whilst in Bao Guo Temple, he entrusted the establishment of the Great Transformation Society (弘化社) in Shanghai to Dharma Master Ming Dao (明道法师) who was assisted by Wang Yi Ting (王一亭), Guan Jiong Zhi (关絅之), Huang Han Zhi (黃涵之), and many other dedicated lay-Buddhist practitioners. The Great Transformation Society was the cause for more efficient printing and dissemination of Buddhist books throughout China.

On 2^nd December 1940, various disciples gathered around Dharma Master Yinguang, who advised the Abbot Miao Zhen to “maintain the temple, disseminate the Pure Land teachings, do this in a humble manner and never be extravagant.” He also told his disciples to recite the Buddha’s name ceaselessly and to keep their vows. Master Yinguang then sat in the full lotus position facing West, and he left his body while sitting up.

Important Works

1. Letters of Master Yinguang (印光法师信稿)
2. Writings of Master Yinguang (印光大师文钞) includes: (1) First Series (正编) (Four Volumes); (2) Second Series (续编) (Two Volumes); and (3) Third Series (三编)

2. Venerable Hongyi 弘一法师 (1880-1942)

Venerable Hongyi was born in Tianjin in 1880, and it is said that a bird flew down and dropped a twig into his room at the time of his birth, which was a very good omen. He was known to be excellent in memorising and understanding poetry and having great insights into the meaning of the poems he read when he was young. Venerable Hongyi later attended Nanyang Public School in 1898, becoming an active member of the Shanghai Painting and Calligraphy Association and the Shanghai Cultural Society.

Venerable Hongyi continued his education in Japan in 1905 at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts and Music School and became a capable artist in Western painting and a composer, who composed many songs according to Western harmonic-melodic models. After returning to China, he was one of the leading figures in the art world of Shanghai who introduced modern (Western) elements into the Chinese art scene. He taught in a girls’ school in Shanghai and later at the Zhejiang Province First Normal College. His teaching engagements included the Nanjing Higher Normal School, the Central University of Nanjing, and the Zhejiang Secondary Normal School (at Hangzhou), as a professor of drawing and music.

Venerable Hongyi’s calligraphy is considered among the best in the world.

While attending a 21-day fast at the Hu Pao Da Ci Buddhist temple in Hangzhou, he had an elated experience of peace and contentment. The next year, he took refuge vows to officially become a Buddhist. A year later, in 1918, he became ordained as a Buddhist monk in the same temple.

Venerable Hongyi devoted himself to the study of the Dharmagupta Vinaya which was introduced into China by Dharmagupta. Based on the Dharmagupta Vinaya, the Tang Dynasty master Daoxuan founded the Vinaya School (Lu Zong), also known as the Vinaya School of the Southern Mountain (Nanshan Lu). During the Qing Dynasty, Xu Weiru, a Chinese lay practitioner, acquired a copy of the full Nanshan Lu text from Japan, and the Chinese text was restored and engraved in Tianjin. Venerable Hongyi went through the text, comparing it with Tibetan and Japanese sources, and corrected the errors. Thus, Venerable Hongyi was considered an important contributor to the restoration of the teachings of the Southern Mountain Vinaya.

Venerable Hongyi suffered from several minor diseases later in life, but he insisted on healing himself through the Buddhist practice of fasting. On the fourth day of the ninth lunar month, Venerable Hongyi passed away peacefully at the Zhengfeng Monastery in Quanzhou, Fujian province, at the age of 63, and many relics were found among his ashes.

Important Works

1. The Collected Works of Venerable Hongyi
2. The Collected Works of Nanshan Lu

3. Venerable Nenghai 能海法师 (1886-1967)

Master Nenghai was born in Mianzhu city, Sichuan Province. His father’s name was Gong Changyi. When he was a child, both of his parents passed away, which made him and his elder sister orphans. When Master Nenghai was 14 years old, he worked as an apprentice in Hengshengtong and learned about Chinese classics and history. In 1905, he went to the military academy and became a drillmaster at Yunnan Military Academy upon completing his military education.

In 1910, Master Nenghai had an opportunity to go to Japan to study industry and politics. In 1913, he attended the lectures given by Venerable Foyuan with his friend, and a sense of devotion arose. Both Master Nenghai and his friend took refuge with Venerable Foyuan. Around the same time, he met with the famous Buddhist layman, Zhang Kecheng, and studied the Mind-Only philosophy under Zhang Kecheng’s guidance.

In Beijing, Master Nenghai decided to become a monk, but he had to wait until his wife had a child. He returned to Sìchuan where he attended lectures at a local Buddhist study group. After his ordination, he joined a Tibetan Dharma study group, where he became interested in Vajrayana Buddhism. Determined to go to Tibet, he obtained a letter of introduction from Khangsa Rinpoche in Lhasa and returned to Chengdu in 1927 to prepare for the trip to Lhasa.

Master Nenghai, a key figure of the “Movement of Tantric Rebirth” in China.

On 20^th June 1928, Master Nenghai and two of his friends started their journey to Lhasa. After battling harsh weather, the group eventually reached their destination. In Lhasa, Master Nenghai stayed with the Tibetan Dharma study group and spent time with Ven. Dayong (1893-1929). He returned to Sichuan in the winter of 1932 to secure more funds.

While in Tibet, Master Nenghai took refuge with Khangsa Rinpoche, and became the 28^th generation of Lama Tsongkhapa‘s lineage holders. He also received the abhisheka and other Dharma transmissions from Khangsa Rinpoche.

After completing his Dharma studies in Tibet, Master Nenghai continued to travel to various places, such as Wu Tai Shan, Jiangxi, and Shanghai. During World War II, he took his disciples from Wu Tai Shan and returned to his native place, Sichuan.

Master Nenghai’s writings and teachings include Tibetan and traditional Chinese Buddhist doctrines, the Lamrim, the Abhisamayalamkara, and the Avatamsaka Sutra. According to his students, his teachings “combined purely into one doctrine both the Tibetan and the Chinese teachings.” His work can be divided into two categories, exoteric and esoteric.

Master Nenghai passed away on 1^st January 1961 in Shancaidong Temple.

Important Works

Master Nenghai wrote many works, especially books on precepts:

1. 《四分律藏根本阿含摄颂》(a book on the Dharmagupta Vinaya and the Agama sutras)
2. 《律海十门》(a book on renunciation and general commitments for renunciates)

4. Venerable Fazun 法尊法师 (1902-1980)

Venerable Fazun was born on 14^th December 1902 in Shen County, Hebei Province to the Wen (温) family. He was a very intelligent child, despite having limited secular education. He left home as a young man to work in Baoding due to the poverty of his family but became ill for an extended period. He eventually quit his job and was ordained at 18 as a Buddhist monk by Ven. Ruipu (瑞普) of the Yuhuang peak of the Xiantong Monastery (显通寺玉皇顶) on Mount Wutai (五台山). He was given the ordination name Miaogui (妙贵) and the secondary name, by which he is known, Fazun. His learning journey began after his ordination, starting with the early morning and evening routine prayers.

In the fall of the same year, he requested Ven. Dayong (大勇), who was on a visit to the temple, for the teachings on the Sutra of the Eight Realisations of Holy Beings (佛说八大人觉经) and the Sutra of Buddha’s Last Teaching (佛遗教经) that had inspired him to pursue his Dharma studies. Before continuing with his studies, he attended a seven-day Buddha Amitabha’s name recitation retreat at Guangji Hermitage. The following summer, he received the oral commentary on the Sutra of Buddha Amitabha (阿弥陀经) from Ven. Dayong and teachings on the Brahma Net Sutra (梵网经) from Ven. Yuancan. He developed a fundamental knowledge of Buddhist scriptural terminology.

In the autumn of the following year, Ven. Fazun met his root teacher, Master Taixu, when he traveled to Beijing with Ven. Dayong. He received teachings on the Lotus Sutra (妙法莲华经) from Master Taixu at Guangjì Temple (广济寺) and attended the precept ceremony conducted by Ven. Daojie (道階) at Fayuan Temple (法源寺).

In the fall of 1922, Master Taixu permitted his admission to the Wuchang Buddhist Seminary (武昌佛学院) which was in its planning stage. In winter, after the monastic vow ceremony, Ven. Fazun traveled to Nanjing to study the Vinaya at Mount Baohua (宝华山). It was there, during the summer, that he received teachings on a Tiantai (天台) school’s scripture Si Jiao Yi (四教仪), while reading An Overview of Buddhist Scriptures and Meditations (教观纲宗) and other texts.

In the winter of the following year, Ven. Fazun studied Japanese Esoteric Buddhism (東密) at Wuchang Buddhist Seminary with Ven. Dayong. He graduated in 1924 and returned to Beijing to study at the Tibetan Language College (藏文学院) that was newly set up by Ven. Dayong. With Ven. Fafang (法舫), Chaoyi (超一), Yanding (严定), Guankong (观空), and Dagang (大刚), he studied the Tibetan language in preparation for the journey to Tibet with a dozen other monks. Organised by Ven. Dayong, the group formed the Residing-in-Tibet Dharma Study Group (留藏学法团) in April 1925. Unfortunately, about 90% of the group either passed away or quit. Ven. Fazun arrived in Lhasa in October 1931 with the help of Amdo Geshe (安東格西). He studied Tibetan Buddhism and received over 40 initiations from Amdo Geshe.

Venerable Fazun played an important role in translating and introducing the Lam Rim, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment written by Lama Tsongkhapa, to China.

Ven. Fazun returned to China after his pilgrimage to India in 1933 and became the Principal of the Sino-Tibetan Institute (汉藏教理院) in the Chongqing (重庆) municipality, where Ven. Taixu (太虚) and Ven. Yinshun (印顺, 1906-2005) were also attached. Two years later, in the winter of 1935, he handed the institute to Ven. Weifang (苇舫) and arrived in Tibet in the spring of 1936. He attended the funeral of Amdo Geshe, before returning to Chongqing in August.

Master Taixu came to Sichuan during the second Sino-Japanese War. Ven. Fafang joined him and Ven. Fazun in 1938 to help run the Sino-Tibetan Institute, which allowed Ven. Fazun to focus on his translation work. Ven. Fazun retired from his post at the institute in 1949 and lectured at the Bodhi Study Society (菩提学会) the following year in Beijing, where he published half a dozen works.

In 1956, Ven. Fazun accepted the post of Vice-Principal of the new Chinese Buddhist Seminary (中国佛学院) of the Fayuan Temple in Beijing that was unfortunately discontinued in 1966, during the Cultural Revolution.

Ven. Fazun passed away on 14^th December 1980 at the age of 79. He had spent his life untiringly teaching, translating, and connecting with innumerable disciples from all over the world. He had lived as a Buddhist monk for 58 years, and his translations and writings amount to over 100. A stupa was erected to house his relics at the Guangzong Temple on Mount Wutai the following year.

Important Works

1. Chinese translation of the Abhisamayalamkara (The Ornament of Clear Realisation) composed by Maitreyanatha
2. Commentary on the Abhisamayalamkara
3. Chinese translation of Atisha’s Bodhipathapradipa《菩提道炬论》
4. Chinese translation of the Pramaṇa-samuccaya by Dignaga《集量论》
5. Chinese translation of Lama Tsongkhapa’s Lamrim Chenmo《菩提道次第广论》
6. Chinese translation of the Abhidharma Mahavibhasa Sastra composed by Kasmira masters《阿毘达磨大毘婆沙论》
7. Chinese translation of Geshe Chodrag’s (Tib. dge bshes chos grags, Chn. ge xi chu zha) Tibetan Dictionary
8. Chinese translation of Lama Tsongkhapa’s Lamp Illuminating the Five Stages of Guhyasamaja
9. Chinese translation of Master Longchen Rabjampa’s (Tib. klong chen rab ‘byams pa) Seven Treasures (Tib. mdzod chen bdun, Chn. 《七宝藏论》)
10. Drafts of several articles for a Buddhist encyclopedia (Chn. 《佛教百科全书》)

5. Venerable Yinshun 印顺法师 (1906-2004)

Ven. Yinshun was notably the most respected Chinese scholar-monk in the late 20^th century. As he was growing up, he studied in both traditional and modern schools. When he was young, his father had him study Chinese medicine also.

Ven. Yinshun was ordained by Ven. Qingnian in 1930 at the Fuquan Hermitage on Mount Putuo (the abode of Avalokiteshvara on earth). Later, in November, he received full ordination under Ven. Yuanying at the Tiantong Temple. Following his ordination, he enrolled in the Minnan Buddhist College. At the request of Ven. Daxing, the school’s Principal, Ven. Yinshun taught at the Gushan Buddhist College for a semester. He met Ven. Xuyun and Ven. Cizhou there. After half a year, he returned to the Minnan Buddhist College to study for a few more years.

Eventually, Ven. Yinshun decided to continue his study of the Buddhist scriptures on his own. Initially, Ven. Qingnian helped him with his studies in the Scripture Hall at the Huiji Temple on Mount Putuo. A few years later, he went to the World Buddhist Studies Centre in Wuchang, where he studied the Sanlun texts. In 1936, Master Taixu asked him to guide the students at the Wuchang Buddhist College.

Ven. Yinshun fled the second Sino-Japanese War in 1938 and moved to Chongqing, where he taught at the Sino-Tibetan Institute. One of his notable students at that time included Ven. Yanpei, who requested Master Taixu to start the Fawang Buddhist College in Hejiang, Sichuan during the fall of 1941. Ven. Yanpei invited Ven. Yinshun to serve as assistant teacher, which he did until 1944.

After the end of the war, Venerable Yinshun and his students made their way to the east and finally arrived in Shanghai in January 1946. Upon arrival, they paid homage to Ven. Taixu at Yufo Temple, then followed the latter’s instructions to establish the Wulin Buddhist College in Hangzhou.

After Master Taixu’s death on 12^th March 1947, Ven. Yinshun and Xuming edited the Collected Works of Master Taixu. In October 1948, Ven. Xingyuan invited Ven. Yinshun and Xuming to help oversee ordinations at Nanputuo Temple in Xiamen. Ven. Yinshun stayed and started a series of teachings but stopped in the middle of 1949 due to the civil war. Ven. Yinshun and several of his associates then fled to Hong Kong.

Master Yinshun and his disciple, founder of Tzu-Chi Foundation, Master Cheng Yen.

In Hong Kong, Ven. Yinshun moved from place to place and sought to establish hermitages and organise a series of lectures with little success. After representing the R.O.C. at an international Buddhist meeting in Japan, Ven. Yinshun settled in Taiwan and became the Abbot of Shandao Temple. He took over the editorial work for the Haichao Yin magazine after the death of Ven. Daxing. He left Shandao Temple in 1957 and moved into the Fuyan Hermitage in Xinzhu, Taiwan.

Master Yinshun passed away on 4^th June 2005 after a long battle with pulmonary tuberculosis, since 1954, in Tzu-Chi Hospital in Hualian at the age of 100. Although his death was expected, many in Taiwan were stunned to hear of his passing. His funeral lasted eight days at Fuyan Vihara in Xinzhu, where he had lived for many years until the end of his life.

Among those attending the funeral were several monastics from around the world, predominantly the United States, and the Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian, R.O.C. Premier Frank Hsieh, and other legislators. His monastic disciples who were present included the Tzu-Chi founder Master Cheng Yen. Ven. Yinshun was cremated on 10^th June 2005.

Important Works

1. The Way To Buddhahood
2. Selected Translations of Miao Yun

6. Zhao Puchu 赵朴初 (1907-2000)

Zhao Puchu was born in 1907 to an illustrious Chinese family in the city of Anqing, in Anhui Province. His father, Zhao Entong, managed a school from his house. When the Qing Dynasty fell and the Republican Revolution started in 1911, the Zhao family felt the need to escape Anqing due to their connection with the fallen dynasty. The family hid in an old family house in Taihu county, Anhui for a period of time.

In 1913, Zhao Puchu started his preliminary education in a private rural school, which he attended for six years. In 1919, his family sent him to Shanghai to obtain a better education. In Shanghai, he lived with Guan Su (关素) (1875– 1962), a close friend of his mother. He stayed with Guan Su’s brother, Guan Jiong (关炯) (1879–1942), who made a tremendous impact on Zhao Puchu’s life. Guan Jiong was a devotee of Pure Land Buddhism and the Deputy Director of the Pure Karma Society, and eventually introduced Zhao Puchu to the Buddhist practices that thrived during that period.

For the first two years after he arrived in Shanghai, Zhao Puchu concentrated on improving his English. In 1922, he attended the First Middle School that emphasised the learning of English, and three years later, his interest in politics blossomed. He took an active part in the two-month protest against imperialism.

In 1928, the Chinese Buddhist Association (CBA) was established and Guan Jiong became a member of the Standing Executive Committee, while Zhao Puchu served as the Secretary of the Pure Karma Society and the CBA. Later, Master Taixu (太虛) (1890–1947), a famous modernist and reformist monk, became President of the CBA, and from then on, Shanghai became an important centre of Chinese Buddhism. In June 1934, His Holiness the 9^th Panchen Lama visited Shanghai, and Zhao Puchu received an initiation from His Holiness. This is considered to be the earliest record of Zhao Puchu’s personal involvement in Buddhist rituals. Zhao Puchu was initiated by Master Yuanying and became a lay Buddhist in 1935.

Zhao Puchu was married twice. His first wife was a lady named Wang Dihua, the daughter of Guan Jiong’s friend. The couple had one son who passed away after contracting measles in 1934. Zhao Puchu and his first wife separated several years later. His second wife was Chen Bangzhi (陈邦织) (1918–2011), a lady from a scholar-official family in Hangzhou.

During the war between Japan and China, Zhao Puchu was involved in relief work. He was a standing committee member and the Director of the “Shelter Department”. His work in the war relief effort gave him a positive reputation and strengthened his connection with the Shanghai elite. On 15^th August 1945, Japan surrendered to the allies, and the Chinese civil war broke out not long after that. Zhao Puchu and several Shanghai left-wing intellectuals formed the Chinese Association for Promoting Democracy (CAPD) to support the CCP in their fight against the Nationalist Party. His role in the CAPD gave him political visibility.

In 1949, Zhao Puchu was working with Zhou Enlai and Pan Hannian. In the 1950s, the CCP wanted to strengthen the government’s relationship with Buddhist minority groups in Tibet, Mongolia, and the southwest, and Buddhist countries elsewhere in Asia, so Zhao Puchu was made the Director of the Preparatory Committee of the Buddhist Association of China (BAC) in November 1952. On 30^th May 1953, the BAC was officially formed, with honorary chairmen, such as His Holiness the 14^th Dalai Lama, His Holiness the 10^th Panchen Lama, Venerable Xuyun, and Chaghan Gegen of Inner Mongolia. The Chairman of BAC was Zhao Puchu’s old friend Yuanying, who initiated Zhao into becoming a lay Buddhist. The appointment of these honorary chairmen and a list of deputy chairs from similar backgrounds were efforts of the CCP to show the unification of the new China.

Zhao Puchu and H.H. the 10th Panchen Lama at the launch of the Qianlong edition of the Tripitaka in 1988.

During the Cultural Revolution, Zhao Puchu experienced challenges and was forced to do manual labour for three months. However, due to Zhou Enlai’s intervention, he regained his position and salary. In 1979, he was the CAPD’s Deputy Chairman, and in 1992, he was the Honorary Chairman of CAPD. His political activities and his role in the Chinese Buddhist organisations earned him the support of the CCP and the Buddhist circles.

After Mao Zedong passed away, Zhao Puchu played an important role mediating between Buddhist practitioners and the government. In 1984, he wrote an article, titled “Buddhism and Chinese Culture”, which contains information about how Buddhism had been integrated into the Chinese culture.

On 21^st May 2000, Zhao Puchu passed away in a hospital in Beijing. His funeral was held on 30^th May 2000 at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery. More than 4,000 people attended his funeral, including PRC Chairman Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, the PRC’s Vice Chairman.

His most notable work is Essentials of Buddhism: Questions and Answers《佛教常识答问》. This book is the fruit of a lifetime of study on Buddhism. In the form of questions and answers, the book addresses and answers most questions raised regarding Buddhism over the past 2,500 years. It provides the lay readers a proper introduction to Buddhism, while giving the scholars inspiration and points of entry for an in-depth study of Buddhism and furnishes the non-Chinese speakers a comprehensive outline of Buddhism.

Due to his effort to promote Buddhism, Zhao Puchu was often called the Lineage Master, Bodhisattva, or Vimalakirti by various Buddhist organisations. In 2001, the CAPD and BAC published the Collected Works of Zhao Puchu. In 2002, with the permission of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, a cultural park dedicated to Zhao Puchu was established. It covers 23 hectares and contains memorial halls, a rebuilt Bao’en Chan Temple, and the Zhao Tomb. In 2004, part of Zhao Puchu’s remains was buried here, alongside the remains of political figures from both the central and local governments.

It has been noted that the structure of this tomb is the same as that of an emperor or prince in traditional China. There is also a Zhao Puchu Museum built at the Wuxi Lingshan Buddhist Cultural Park.

Important Works

1. Essentials of Buddhism: Questions and Answers

7. Venerable Longlian 隆莲法师 (1909-2006)

Venerable Longlian’s high academic achievements are known far and near. The author of numerous books and essays, she was a researcher at the Buddhist Art Institute of China and also assumed many other academic positions. Aside from her profound knowledge of Buddhism, she spoke English and Tibetan, which was rare in China, and was one of the compilers of A Great Tibetan-Chinese Dictionary. Master Longlian was not only an exalted Buddhist scholar, but also worked hard to re-establish dual ordination in China, which was absent from the Chinese Buddhist tradition for centuries.

Venerable Longlian was born You Yongkang in Leshan town, Sichuan province, into a family of scholars. She studied various subjects at home, including mathematics, physics, painting, classical literature, poetry, and calligraphy. She also learned English, Tibetan and traditional Chinese medicine.

She later taught at Chendu Women’s Normal School and published her first book, Dedication to Learning《志学初集》which earned her the reputation as the foremost female scholar in her province. In 1939, she topped all three examinations for those aspiring to be educational administrators, civil servants, or senior civil servants and became an editor-translator at the provincial editing and translating bureau.

In 1921, she took refuge in the Three Jewels and officially became a Buddhist. She studied with many famous Buddhist masters, including Fazun, Nenghai, and Wang Enyang. Her first work on Buddhism was called A Brief Discussion on Mahayanasamgraha《摄大乘论疏略述》. She ordained as a nun in 1941. In 1942, she served as Dean of the Sichuan Lotus School Nunnery and later became the abbess of two nunneries in Chengdu (成都): Aidaotang (爱道堂) and Tiesiang Temple (铁像寺), and maintained these positions throughout her life.

Venerable Longlian and her nuns in Sichuan, China.

Venerable Longlian’s wish was to establish a Buddhist college for nuns, which she finally did in 1983 in Tiesiang Temple, the first institution of higher education devoted to the training of female Buddhist scholars. In 1982, she was awarded the Teaching Culture Award and a special copy of the Taisho Buddhist Canon by the Japanese Buddhist Association. She was the only woman invited by the Chief Editor and the Ministry of Culture of Sri Lanka to contribute to the section on Chinese Buddhism in a Buddhist encyclopedia.

On 9^th November 2006, Venerable Longlian passed away at Aidaotang in Chengdu Province, China. She was Vice President of the Buddhist Association of China (中国佛教协会副会长) and President of SNBC.

Important Works

1. Great Chinese–Tibetan Dictionary《汉藏字典》

8. Master Nan Huai-Chin 南怀瑾 (1918-2012)

“There is no question that Master Nan’s work is a cut above anything else available from modern authors, either academic or secular, and I would like to see his work gain its rightful place in the English speaking world. … [His] studies contain broad learning in all three main traditions of Chinese thought, Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist. Although this comprehensive purview was common to the greatest minds of China since the T’ang dynasty, it is rare among scholars today.” ~Thomas Cleary

Master Nan Huai-Chin is one of the most renowned and honoured lay Buddhist teachers in Asia. He mastered all three spiritual traditions in China, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and wrote more than 40 books based on these traditions. Many in the Chinese cultural scene consider him one of the most influential Chan Buddhist teachers of all time. Master Nan passed away at the age of 95 in 2012 in Suzhou, China, leaving a legacy of Buddhist works still being studied by scholars today.

During Master Nan’s younger days, he learnt the ancient tradition of Chinese martial arts, and at age 17, he mastered the works of great scholars in Confucianism and Taoism. He studied social welfare at Jinling University and then taught in the Central Military Academy in Nanjing. During the second Sino-Japanese War and at only 21 years old, Master Nan became a military commander at the border regions of Sichuan, Yunnan, and Xikang, leading a group of 30,000 men against the Japanese invasion.

In 1942, Master Nan engaged in a three-year retreat in one of the four sacred Buddhist pilgrimage sites, the Emei Mountain in China. He was just 24 years old, and this was when he gained direct realisations, which he could verify against the Chinese Tripitaka. This led him to compose verses for each chapter from the Diamond Sutra. In total, there were 32 chapters. Three years later, he went to Tibet to study under Tibetan masters. A high Lama, a Tulku of the Kagyu tradition, Hutuktu Kung Ka (贡噶呼图克图), gave Master Nan the title Vajra Master. Master Nan was also the heart student of a prominent lay Chan Master Yuan Huan-Xian (袁焕仙). This made Master Nan a skilled and learned master of the Chan and Tantric Buddhist traditions. Tongchan (通禅) was Master Nan’s Dharma name.

In 1949, Master Chan moved to Taiwan and became renowned as a professor and author. In 1956, he published his first book titled The Sea of Chan. His books gained popularity in China and Taiwan, and over 20 million copies were sold in Chinese-speaking countries all around the world. Some have been reprinted 20 times in Taiwan, and his works on Confucianism were used as standard reference books in China and Taiwan universities.

It is beyond doubt that his teachings had great influence and helped transform many young intellectuals, becoming one of the major forces for the revival of authentic Buddhist teachings in China.

A frontispiece in the book Heritage of Change – a Background to Chinese Culture and Thinking, written by Master Nan’s student.

Most teachings given by Master Nan were major texts from Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, including:

Buddhist Sutras: Heart Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Surangama Sutra, Langkavatara Sutra, Sutra of Complete Enlightenment, Medicine Buddha Sutra, Vimalakirti Sutra, the Yogacarabhumi shastra.

Taoist Classics: Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), Can Tong Qi, Zhuangzi, Liezi, Huang Di Nei Jing.

Confucian Classics: The Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects, The Great Learning, Mencius, The Yijing (I Ching, Book of Changes)

In 1985, Master Nan went to the United States, and from 1988 onwards, he lived in Hong Kong. He was later invited to be the mediator between Mainland China and Taiwan in the peace talks. He also played a major role in spreading and promoting a huge range of educational, cultural, and philanthropic initiatives in China and other parts of the world.

In 2006, Master Nan established the Taihu Great Learning Centre (太湖大学堂), a 200-acre learning institute near Suzhou. The school provides the best of east and west, combining traditional Chinese and Western approaches. The school emphasises ethics and etiquette, meditation, traditional Chinese medical theories, and recitation in both the Chinese and English languages.

Important Works

1. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen Diamond Sutra Explained

9. Professor Fang Litian 方立天 (1933 -2014)

A prominent religious scholar in China, Professor Fang Litian was the Founding Director of the Institute for the Study of Buddhism and Religious Theory of Renmin University, Beijing, which is one of the major institutions of religious studies in China. He served as an Associate Chairman and Advisor of the Chinese Association of Religious Studies, Deputy Chairman of the Association for the History of Chinese Philosophy, Editor-in-Chief of the journal The History of Chinese Philosophy, member of the Social Sciences Committee of the State Ministry of Education, and a Fellow at the Central Research Institute of Culture and History in Beijing. In addition, he received the Wu Yuzhang Award for Social Science in 2007. His teaching and research focused on Chinese Buddhism, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese culture. He published numerous award-winning books and hundreds of articles, including Essence of Chinese Buddhist Philosophy (1986, 2002, published in Chinese) and Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture (1988, published in Chinese).

Professor Fang Litian was born in 1933 in Yongkang, Zhejiang Province. After graduating from the Philosophy Department of Beijing University in 1961, he served as a teacher in the Philosophy Department of the Renmin University of China. At that time, he focused on the interaction between the three schools of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism during the Wei, Jin, the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Research in Buddhism in China was almost non-existent during that time, although there was a large amount of Buddhist literature. Researchers who wished to venture into this field had to have knowledge covering many subjects, such as language, writing, religion, philosophy, and history. As such, he went to study at The Buddhist Academy of China for eight months. The study of Buddhism was marginalised and was even forbidden during the Cultural Revolution. However, in line with academic responsibility and dedication to the truth, Professor Fang ventured fearlessly into the field of Buddhist Studies, devoting most of his time to working in the library.

In 1982, the Zhonghua Book Company published his Collection of Buddhist Works of Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties《魏晋南北朝佛教论丛》, which took him 18 years to complete. 13 years after the initial publication, it was reprinted in 1995 and again in 2002.

In the field of case studies, Professor Fang wrote Huiyuan and Buddhism, Fazang and other works. He also compiled more than four volumes of A Selection of Chinese Buddhist Philosophy, with a group of friends as editors. This became the most popular collection of Buddhist philosophy in colleges and universities since the 1980s. His most influential work was the book Buddhist Philosophy. This book represents Professor Fang’s effort for the modernisation of Buddhism. To propagate Buddhism, it should be explained in contemporary philosophical terms. Buddhist studies were mostly Buddhist history, with very few works on the fundamentals of Buddhism. This book was widely praised by experts, scholars, the general public, and the Buddhist community, and was the most popular introductory book on Buddhism in the 1980s. The book also received a lot of attention in the international academic circles, with translation into Korean completed in 1993.

Professor Fang also produced six monographs, four co-authored papers, and published more than 50 papers. His outstanding achievements upgraded him from a lecturer to a professor. An idea of writing a book on the philosophy of Chinese Buddhism similar in concept and genre to that of “The History of the Development of Ancient Chinese Philosophies” came up. This was a two-pronged attempt, to further the study of Chinese Buddhist philosophy and to connect the results of studies on Buddhist philosophical research with ancient Chinese philosophical thought to enrich the field of the history of Chinese philosophy. As a result, after 15 years of painstaking efforts, the epic Essentials of Chinese Buddhist Philosophy in more than 9 million words was published. The critics commented: “The book is a tremendous leap forward in terms of the depth and breadth compared to its predecessors.” Prof Fang’s research and writing continued to grow, with more than 350 research papers under his name. One of his important books has now been compiled by Renmin University Press into an anthology in six volumes.

Professor Fang Litian was regularly invited to give lectures or participate in academic activities in various countries around the world.

Professor Fang taught many courses on Buddhist philosophy, such as “History of philosophy in China”, “Issues in ancient Chinese philosophy”, “Selected readings from classic Buddhist texts”, “Introduction to Buddhism”, “Buddhist philosophy”, “Buddhism and Chinese culture”, “Metaphysics in the Wei and Jin Dynasties”, “Buddhism in the Sui and Tang Dynasties”, among many others. During his academic career, he supervised more than 40 graduate students, both in China and abroad.

Professor Fang enjoyed a good reputation within the Buddhist academic circles both at home and abroad. He was invited to give lectures and to participate in academic activities in the United States, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and other countries and regions. He also guided and established the important international academic exchange platforms of the Sino-Japanese Buddhist Conference, the Buddhist Academic Conference of China, Japan and Korea, and the International Academic Conference of Religious Social Science, expanding the international influence and international status of Chinese religion and Chinese philosophy, promoting international exchanges and cooperation between the academia and Chinese philosophical circles.

Important Works

1. Essence of Chinese Buddhist Philosophy (two volumes)
2. Buddhism of Wei-Jin and Southern-Northern Dynasties (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 1)
3. Buddhism in the Sui and Tang Dynasties (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 2)
4. Buddhist Culture of China (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 3)
5. Philosophy of Buddhism (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 4)
6. Philosophy of Ancient China (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 5)
7. Philosophy of Ancient China (Fang Litian’s Anthology, Volume 6)
8. Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Chinese Culture (The Grand Humanity Series of Contemporary China)
9. Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture
10. Chinese Culture and Religion

10. Professor Wang Bangwei 王邦维 (b.1950)

Professor Wang Bangwei is a disciple of Ji Xianlin, the Doyen of Indian studies in China. He is considered the foremost scholar in Indian and Buddhist studies in China today. His humble beginnings started in a village in Guizhou, where he worked as a salesperson in a store before enrolling in Sichuan University’s Department of History. Later, thinking he would lose the chance to be enrolled in graduate school as he was competing with another candidate, a teacher in the university, he applied to another university and ended up in Peking University.

Professor Wang furthered his studies at the South Asia Institute, receiving a master’s degree in 1982. He then completed his PhD from Peking University’s Department of Eastern Languages in 1987. There, he met his mentor and teacher, Ji Xianlin. It was a coincidence as Professor Wang was interested in studying more about India, and Professor Ji Xianlin was an Indologist and an expert in the field. Grateful to his mentor, Professor Wang was later involved in Ji Xianlin’s project, a revised version of the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions《大唐西域记校注》, a newly collated and annotated text, with an introduction and appendices on the narrative of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang‘s 19-year journey from Chang’an in central China to the Western regions of Chinese historiography during the Tang dynasty.

Professor Wang Bangwei is a highly sought-after speaker.

From 1982 to 1992, Professor Wang served as Assistant Researcher, Lecturer, and Associate Professor in the South Asia Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Peking University’s Department of Oriental Studies. Since then, he has served as Professor of Oriental Studies, School of Foreign Languages, Oriental Studies, and Oriental Literature Research Centre in Peking University. He has published many academic works and essays in China, Germany, France, India, Sweden and Japan, with topics covering the history of Sino-Indian cultural relations, Buddhist history, Buddhist language, Buddhist literature, and literature cited by Chinese and foreign scholars in their scholastic works. Professor Wang is also part of the Nalanda Mentor Group, working to re-establish a new Nalanda University in India and is a member of the Governing Board of the university.

Important Works

1. Great Tang Records on the Western Regions
2. Selected Stories from the Buddhist Scriptures
3. History of Buddhism
4. The Life & Work of Tang Buddhist Monk Yijing

Sources:

• Ownby, D., & Goossaert, V. (2017). Making Saints in Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press.
• http://buddhistinformatics.ddbc.edu.tw/dmcb/Biography_Portal
• https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/asi/author/wang-bangwei

For more interesting information:

• Anagarika Dharmapala: The Revered Buddhist Revivalist
• B.R. Ambedkar: The Father of the Indian Constitution and the Babasaheb of the Dalits
• Rabindranath Tagore: A beacon for humanity
• Alexandra David-Néel
• H.H. the Great Thirteenth Dalai Lama Thubten Gyatso’s prediction
• Lama Anagarika Govinda: The Pioneer Who Introduced Tibetan Buddhism to the World
• Kazi Dawa Samdup: a Pioneering Translator of Tibetan Buddhist Texts
• Ekai Kawaguchi – Three Years in Tibet
• Agvan Dorjiev: The Diplomat Monk
• Bill Porter (Red Pine): The Translator of Chinese Poems and Promoter of Zen Buddhism
• Herbert Guenther – Master of Languages & Buddhism
• George Roerich – Light of the Morning Star
• Danzan Ravjaa: The Controversial Mongolian Monk
• John Blofeld and His Spiritual Journey
• Professor Garma C.C. Chang – The Illustrious Pioneer
• Incredible Geshe Wangyal

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