Many Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese when Parthians such as An Shigao spread Buddhism in China.

Historically speaking, China has often been an open society, one that has welcomed foreign influence. As such, Chinese culture has a long history of translating texts from other countries and regions. According to the earliest records that exist today, there were periodic spurts of translation from as early as the 11^th century BCE.  Serious translation however, did not occur until the East Han Dynasty (148 CE), when Buddhism was introduced to China. Since then, China has witnessed four great movements of translation, which greatly influenced the philosophy, religion, and social life of the Chinese people.

Records show that China’s cultural borders were open as early as the Shang (ca. 1600–1050 BCE) and Zhou (ca. 1046–256 BCE) Dynasties. Buddhism arrived in China after these periods, and underwent three distinct phases:

• Phase 1: The translation of Buddhist scriptures;
• Phase 2: The dissemination of the Buddhist teachings;
• Phase 3: The divisions within Buddhist practice which reached their height during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)

Buddhism entered China via the Silk Road starting from the 1st or 2nd century CE

The first phase was crucial as the influence of monks from India and Central Asia during the Han and Tang Dynasties was central to the foundation of Chinese Buddhism, as well as the understanding of Buddhism itself in the region.

The translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese was carried out by foreign monks; however, some of the earliest Chinese Sutras were also translated with the help of local Chinese translators. When these foreign monks traveled to China, they translated the texts orally into various Chinese dialects while local scholars transcribed their words in written Chinese. Once a few of the foreign monks became fluent in both spoken and written Chinese, they were able to establish Chinese Buddhism through translating hundreds of volumes of scriptures.

The Biography of An Shigao

Portrait of An Shigao (安世高)

An Shigao (安世高), a Parthian monk also known as Parthamasiris, was the first translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese and an early Buddhist missionary to China. He is known by his pen name ‘Shigao’ but his name in Chinese was Qing (安清). Most foreigners from Anxi (安息) who took on Chinese names were given the prefix ‘An’ to denote where they came from. Hence, he is known today as An Shigao. Anxi is the Chinese translation for Arsak, known in English as the Arsacid Empire of Parthia which was located in present-day northeastern Iran.

Before becoming a monk, An Shigao was heir to the Parthian throne but renounced his position and gave the throne to his uncle after his father’s death. He then began a life of Buddhist learning and practice. He was well-known for honouring his parents, for his comprehension of Buddhist Sutras, and had a broad knowledge of medicine, astrology, and various sacred texts.

He came from Arsakes

He came, his camel’s bells jingling,
Eastwards from enigmatic Persian lands.

He descended from his royal throne,
Sparrows twittering as his brick-red robe fell across the manifold waters and mountains.

He toiled through the desert’s golden sands,
Owning nothing after his colossal renunciation.

Cultivating a renunciant’s hopes,
He created the Buddhism of China through erudition, education, and translation.

He walked towards the great sea,
His compassionate eyes arresting blades of light.

The footprints of the past whispered his legend,
Spring came and the flowers were in bloom,
Samsara’s waves still murmured below the harbour of the secular world.

By Ven. Dao Ran

Although most records state An Shigao was a monk, some people claim he was a layperson instead. There is also some confusion as to whether he was a follower of the Sarvastivada or Mahayana school of thought, although affiliations with these two schools need not be viewed as mutually exclusive.

For instance, in “The Hostage An Shigao and His Offspring: An Iranian Family in China”, Antonino Forte claims that An Shigao was not a monk but a layman who was sent by the Parthian government to China as a diplomatic hostage, challenging commonly held beliefs about him.

Seng You (僧佑, 445-518 CE)

However, Jan Nattier argues that the lay status of An Shigao is questionable since he was referred to as He Shang (和尚), a term used to translate the monastic title of ‘upadhyaya‘ or ‘preceptor’.

Furthermore, in the work titled Chu San Zang Ji Ji (出三藏記集) by Seng You (僧佑, 445-518 CE), it clearly states that An Shigao was proficient in the Abhidharma, which is necessary for a thorough understanding of the Buddhist path. An Shigao was also able to recite meditational sutras from memory and had mastered the true essence of these works completely.

In 148 CE, during the second year of Emperor Huan’s Jianhe Reign during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE), An Shigao travelled from Scythia in Central Asia via the Silk Road to Luoyang, the capital of the Han Dynasty. There, he decided to teach and spread the Buddhist doctrine. It was in Luoyang that An Shigao began learning Chinese. A gifted linguist, he became fluent in the language very quickly.

The Imperial Court at Luoyang was particularly vibrant yet dangerous, as aristocrats and scholar-officials waged war against the dominant eunuchs. The political unrest and ferocious intrigue led An Shigao to travel around the country instead, to continue his mission to spread Buddhism.

As he travelled the land, he preached the Buddhist doctrine and translated various Sutras into Chinese. He also attracted a devoted following of students who learned the Buddhadharma from him. In fact, An Shigao was the first foreign monk who could translate the Sutras into Chinese without local help, and he was also able to give accurate oral translations of the Sutras. “Oral translation” refers to a technique used when someone translates the original text into the Chinese language in such a way that it can be recorded in written Chinese characters immediately.

Chang’an was the capital of the Western Han Dynasty from 202 BCE to 8 CE. At its peak, it was four times the size of the Roman empire and was home to 240,000 people.

In Huijiao’s (497-554 CE) text called Gaoseng Zhuan (高僧传), he stated that An Shigao lived in Luoyang for more than 20 years until the middle period of Emperor Ling’s reign. During his stay, he translated over 30 texts. The record reads:

“In the early period of Emperor Huan’s rule, this venerable monk had visited China. He had demonstrated extraordinary abilities of memory recall, he was able to memorise all at once. He became fluent in the Chinese language in a short period; thereafter he translated many Sutras from foreign languages into Chinese.”

“There was a Bodhisattva who came from the state of Arsaka. His name was Shigao. Old Sutra texts which were explained by him are very famous even now. Those texts show the path for purification. He also disseminated the doctrine in the kingdom of Han. Oral and written records by him were counted as millions of characters.”

As An Shigao’s deeds can be found in many important texts as mentioned above, it is clear that he had an impactful role as the first translator of Buddhist texts in China.

Works and Translations

During his stay in China, An Shigao produced a substantial number of translations from Indian Buddhist texts. Among these are more than a dozen works that are currently extant, including texts that relate to Abhidharma, meditation, and basic Buddhist teachings. However, teachings of a Mahayana nature are not contained within his corpus of translations.

Due to his brilliant abilities, many early Chinese sources regularly refer to him as a ‘Bodhisattva’ and scholarly studies of his translations have shown that the majority of his works are closely affiliated with the Sarvastivada school of thought.

An Xuan (安玄) and Yan Fotiao (严佛调)

An Shigao’s lay disciple, An Xuan (安玄), together with a Chinese collaborator, Yan Fotiao (严佛调), worked in Luoyang at the same time and produced a translation of the Mahayana text titled “The Ugrapariprccha Sutra” (法镜经) around 181 CE.

In “Zen Buddhism: A History, India & China (Volume 1)”, Heinrich Dumoulin states that during the 2^nd century CE, there was an upsurge of interest in various meditation practices amongst the Chinese elite. Thus, the abundance of newly translated information about Buddhist meditation during the Eastern Han was one of the reasons for the growth of Buddhism at that time. An Shigao’s translations also included a significant number of Sutras on meditation techniques including Da Anban Shouyi Jing (大安般守意經, The Great Anapanasmrti Sutra), Chanxing Faxiang Jing (禪行法想經), and Yin Chi Ru Jing (陰持入經), which contributed directly to the successful dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings in China.

The Anapanasmrti Sutra exists in several forms, with the earliest translation completed by An Shigao as a standalone Sutra (see T602 in the list below). However, in the Chinese Buddhist Canon (Taisho Tripitaka), there is another version of the Anapanasmrti Sutra which is part of the Ekotta Agama. This version includes teachings on the Four Dhyanas, the Divine Eye, recalling past lives, etc. The translation done by An Shigao is not part of the Sarvastivada Mahayana Agama but an isolated text.

Below is a list of An Shigao’s works compiled by various scholars including Erik Zürcher, a pioneer in the study of works attributed to An Shigao; Stefano Zacchetti; Paul Harrison; and Kajiura Susumu, as arranged in the Taisho Tripitaka.

• T 13 Chang Ahan Shi Bao Fa Jing (長阿含十報法經)
• T 14 Ren Ben Yu Sheng Jing (人本欲生經)
• T 31 Yiqie Liu Sheshou Yin Jing (一切流攝守因經)
• T 32 Si Di Jing (四諦經)
• T 36 Ben Xiang Yi Zhi Jing (本相猗致經)
• T 48 Shi Fa Fei Fa Jing (是法非法經)
• T 57 Lou Fenbu Jing (漏分佈經)
• T 98 Pu Fa Yi Jing (普法義經)
• T 101 Za Ahan Jing (雜阿含經)
• T 112 Ba Zheng Dao Jing (八正道經)
• T 150a Qi Chu San Guan Jing (七處三觀經)
• T 603 Yin Chi Ru Jing (陰持入經)
• T 602 Da Anban Shouyi Jing (大安般守意經)
• T 605 Chan Xing Fa Xiang Jing (禪行法想經)
• T 607 Dao Di Jing (道地經)
• T 792 Fa Shou Chen Jing (法受塵經)
• T 1508 Ahan Koujie Shi’er Yinyuan Jing (阿含口解十二因緣經)
• T 1557 Apitan Wu Fa Xing Jing (阿毘曇五法行經)
• Two manuscripts kept in the collection of the Kongōji in Osaka Prefecture, Japan

The most famous of An Shigao’s works is Da Anban Shouyi Jing which addresses the breathing skill of inhaling and exhaling, which Taoists of the time were fond of. An Shigao skilfully translated the text using Taoist terms in order to make them more appealing to Chinese sensibilities. His intent was later misunderstood by Chinese Buddhists, who questioned the quality of his translations. The desire to distinguish Buddhist practices from Taoist ones eventually led to Xuanzang’s famous journey to India.

Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664 CE) was a renowned monk, explorer, scholar, writer and translator who was particularly famous for his journey to India and his careful translation of various Buddhist scriptures.

The Mystical Qualities of An Shigao

Being an influential teacher and meditation master, An Shigao was also associated with the supernatural and the performing of miracles. According to ancient records, An Shigao was very well informed about the secrets of life and death. He was blessed with the ability to heal, predict the future, and communicate with animals. These abilities are similar to the highest state that Laozi’s (老子) and Zhuangzi’s (庄子) followers wished to achieve through cultivating their minds and bodies.

According to Kittipanyo Bhikkhu (释智誉, Phra Kiattisak Ponampon) in his work “Mission, Meditation and Miracles: An Shigao in Chinese Tradition”, An Shigao had many supernatural abilities:

However, the references to An Shigao’s supernatural powers in his biography are evidence that he was believed to have achieved “the higher knowledge” or “abhiññā”. Abhiññā is one of the fruits of meditative achievement and can be understood as a worldly manifestation of “Buddhist charisma.” The six supernormal knowledges or abhiññā, consist of (1) iddhi-vidhā or “supernatural powers,” (2) dibba-sota or “divine ear,” (3) ceto-pariya-ñāṇa or the “penetration of the minds of others,” or the “mind reading” (4) pubbe-nivāsānussati or the “remembrance of former existences,” (5) dibba-cakkhu or “divine eye,” and (6) āsavakkhaya, or “extinction of all cankers.” The link between spiritual advancement and supernatural power is accepted by most Asian Buddhist communities, but not all Western Buddhologists are comfortable with the supernatural.

An Shigao is believed to have attained the Buddhist abhinna, which manifested in his linguistic ability in Chinese and animal languages, his ability to remember his former lives, his awareness of his own destiny, and his performing of miracles, feats that “no-one else in the world could achieve”. As shared by Kittipanyo Bhikkhu,

Further evidence that An Shigao was regarded as having attained supernatural powers can be seen in the conversation with the magical python:

Shigao replied: “I am here just to save you, but why can’t I see your body?”
The god replied: “My body is very strange and ugly and will scare the crowd.”
Shigao replied: “[Please] just show yourself [come out]. The crowd will not be shocked.”

The god stretched his head out of the altar [desk, “sanctum” (?)] and [it turned out he] was a giant python. [The python slithered] onto Shigao’s knee with tears running down like rain. His tail was so long that no one knew where it ended.

Shigao talked to him in the foreign [hu, 胡] language which the bystanders could not understand. Then, the python disappeared.”

Traditional Chinese literature includes a genre called zhiguai (志怪). As such, mystical events exist in An Shigao’s biography because supernatural and miraculous elements play an important role in Chinese Buddhist hagiographic literature which are “themselves an important part of historical reality” to Chinese Buddhists.

Meditation lies at the core of Buddhist practice, especially for ordained monks and nuns who renounce the life of a layperson to follow in the Buddha’s footsteps. Apart from purifying defilements of the mind, Buddhist meditation is indispensable on the path to Enlightenment, the state of Nirvana, which is the ultimate goal of all Buddhists. Practitioners achieve insight and “reveal the true facts of existence” through the process of meditation. Wisdom also arises through meditation when the practitioner sees “all beings and their problems, including oneself and one’s own nature, without hatred, boredom, or contempt.”

The Chinese believe that Buddhism and Buddhist meditation are ways to gain spiritual power, as do all Buddhists. Supernatural beings such as the python, references to the ‘way to immortality’, the shining lights, and the earthquakes described in An Shigao’s biography are references to the spiritual power he is said to have gained through meditation. This power is not literally ‘supernatural’ but is a reflection of his achievement of Buddhist perfection. According to the Chinese Buddhist tradition, the more a monk meditates, the more power he has. Thus, the stories of An Shigao’s mystical powers are evidence of Chinese belief in his attainments, and reflect his reputation as the first and foremost Buddhist monk and meditation master in China.

Conclusion

Foreign monks like An Shigao left two more very important legacies. Firstly, the early translations and liturgies owe their existence in Chinese to these monks who replaced the original Sanskrit words with their Chinese equivalent. Secondly, the Chinese Buddhist institution was forever defined in relation to the “Buddhist heartlands” of India and Central Asia. They were upheld as the sites from where the ideals of Buddhist practice originated.

But after the Tang Dynasty, they were sidelined following the intellectual vibrancy of sectarian divisions and Chinese rulers who began identifying Buddhist pilgrimage sites within their empire’s borders, and monks like Xuanzang were the last of a generation who looked to India and Central Asia as the epicentres of Buddhism.

Dao An (道安, 312-385 CE)

An Shigao is said to have passed away in Kuaiji, a city in present-day Zhejiang Province, killed in the marketplace by a ruffian. His legacy was the introduction of the Indian Buddhist literary heritage to China. Many Buddhist terms such as Anan (阿难, Ananda), Tian (天, Deva or heaven), Se (色, rupa), Fan (梵, the god Brahma), and Chan (禪, dhyana or meditation) first appeared in An Shigao’s work and were adopted by later generations of translators even until the present day.

Having travelled around China teaching, preaching and translating the Buddhist scriptures for over two decades, An Shigao’s works greatly influenced many generations of Chinese masters, including the Tang Dynasty Vinaya Master Dao An (道安, 312-385 CE) who made no secret of his admiration for An Shigao’s translations. His works also led to a revival of the Abhidharma theory during the Jin Dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Chinese Abhidharma School.

Ksitigarbha, Buddha Amitabha and Dorje Shugden. Click on image to enlarge or for more high resolution thangka downloads click here.

Three Saints of the Western Pureland – Amituofo, Dashizhi and Kuan Yin together with Dorje Shugden. Click on image to enlarge or for more high resolution thangka downloads click here.

Buddha Amitabha and Kuan Yin together with Dorje Shugden. Click on image to enlarge or for more high resolution thangka downloads click here.

Kuan Yin (Goddess of Compassion), Wei Tuo and Dorje Shugden. Click on image to enlarge or click here for more beautiful thangkas.

Sources:

• Ven. Dr. Nedalagamuwe Dhammadinna, “An Introduction to Early Translations of Buddhist Sutra into Chinese”, Kalyāṇi: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, pp 37- 42
• An Shigao, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Shigao
• http://www.tamqui.com/buddhaworld/An_Shigao
• http://www.chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/An_Shigao
• https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-prince-monk-of-parthia-the-legacy-of-an-shigao
• Epitome of the Pali Canon by Chroniker Press Book
• The Spread of Buddhism edited by Ann Heriman, Stephan Peter Bumbacher, Brill, 11 May 2007
• Translating China, by Xuanmin Luo & Yuanjian He, Multilingual Matters, 2009 – Language Arts & Disciplines
• Antonino Forte, The Hostage An Shigao and his Offspring: An Iranian Family in China (1995) [43] by Jonathan A. Silk, 2013, Asian Studies E-Books Online, Collection 2014, Volume: 112
• Translation and Cultural Change: Studies in History, Norms, and Image Projection edited by Eva Hung, John Benjamins Publishing, 1 Jan 2005
• Text, History, and Philosophy: Abhidharma across Buddhist Scholastic Traditions edited by Bart Dessein, Weijen Teng, BRILL, 9 Jun 2016
• Epitome of the Pali Canon by Chroniker Press Book
• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, 1: India and China, Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom

For more interesting links:

• Kumarajiva – the Great Translator from Kucha
• Kazi Dawa Samdup: a Pioneering Translator of Tibetan Buddhist Texts
• Herbert Guenther – Master of Languages & Buddhism
• Tsem Rinpoche and China | 詹杜固仁波切与中国
• Amazing Xuanzang and His Journey to the West
• Niguma: Mistress of Illusion
• Emperor Kangxi and Wu Tai Shan
• 700 Meet A Buddha (七百人幸睹佛现)
• Bodhidharma – the founder of Gongfu
• The Chinese Zodiac
• Wonderful Lhasa
• Du Fu – a Poet Savant
• Bill Porter (Red Pine): The Translator of Chinese Poems and Promoter of Zen Buddhism
• Ji Gong – The Crazy Monk of China
• Why is Buddha Amitabha So Prevalent in China?
• Kukai Kobo Daishi: The Esoteric Monk of Shingon Buddhism

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