A statue of the Buddha at Yungang Grottoes in Datong City, Shanxi Province, China. This is just one of 51,000 statues carved at the ancient cave site where Buddhist practice once flourished

Introduction

Since the time of the historical Buddha, the Sangha (ordained monastic community) have been sharing the Buddha’s teachings with many people from all walks of life. Over time, the Sangha travelled to many villages and cities, expanding their reach to different states in India, following various trade routes as recounted in many old Buddhist stories. This is how Buddhism spread within India and from India to many other countries.

During the Mauryan Empire (322-187 BCE), Buddhism spread north and north-west from its birthplace, from present day Bihar through the Kingdom of Kuru (present-day Uttar Predesh), up towards Gandhara (present-day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan) and Kashmir. It also spread south from Bihar to Maharashtra, and south-east to Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka.

It was after the era of the Mauryan Empire that Buddhism spread from Kashmir and Gandhara, along the ancient Silk Road through Central Asia and into China. Simultaneously, Buddhism also spread to China via sea through South-East Asia. Although Indian and Chinese cultures could not have been more different, Buddhism was adapted to suit Chinese perspectives. With the gradual spread of Buddhism throughout China in the 3rd Century CE, Indian Buddhist beliefs, literature, language and grammar had a major impact on early Chinese society and culture. These influences are still seen to this day.

A painting from the Ming Dynasty in China (1368-1644 CE) depicting the most important figures of the three religions which helped to shape Chinese culture. Buddha Shakyamuni (left); Lao Tzu (centre); and Confucius (right).

Today, the main Chinese religions include Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and traditional beliefs related to or derived from these religions. According to Liu Mi, a late Song Dynasty Chinese elite,

“Buddhism is for the cultivation of mind, Daoism is for the training of the physical body and Confucianism is for the governance of society.”

This statement reflects the main functions of the three religions during the last 2,000 years in China. Confucianism, as the main belief that historical governance was based upon, was well-supported by both Buddhism and Daoism in China. These three religions did not and do not function as separate institutions within the Chinese context, but have also seen the spread of their individual practice lineages and traditions throughout various communities without discrimination.

Both Buddhism and the other Chinese philosophies encourage tolerance and open mindedness. Despite conflicts in Chinese history, the harmony and integration integral to these religions prevailed and were used to pacify conflict when necessary. Thus, scholars of Chinese religions agree that Buddhism played an important role in the formation and development of the country’s religious beliefs as a whole.

Buddhist Influence on Daoism

An example of early Buddhist art in China. Depictions of the Buddha and Buddhist figures took on distinctly Chinese artistic features.

Buddhism entered China around the 2nd Century CE, with Buddhist monks and translators from India and Central Asia arriving in large numbers along the Silk Road and by sea. With their shaven heads, begging bowls and monastic robes, the monks had no homes or families, defying the already established Confucian tradition which emphasised producing heirs, having a family, and honouring the ancestors.

Buddhism arrived in China around the same time Christianity entered the Roman Empire from Palestine. Contrary to Christianity in Europe, Buddhism did not wipe out traditional Chinese religious beliefs and morals. In the beginning, Buddhism was simply viewed as another sect of Daoism, as stories circulated that Lao Zi, the founder of the Daoist religion, was reborn in the heavenly Buddhist Western Pure Land and became either the Buddha’s teacher or became a Buddha himself.

Daoism had not yet formed as a cohesive religion when Buddhism was introduced to China during the Han Dynasty. It was then simply a philosophy the Chinese learned and practised. From the 2nd to the 7th Centuries, Daoism developed dramatically. Many Daoist practices, texts and rituals were actually formed by absorbing both Confucianist and Buddhist teachings. During this period, Buddhism gradually took root in China as a large number of Buddhist scriptures from Central Asia and India were translated into Chinese. Daoism absorbed Buddhist ideology, practices, and organisational systems.

(1) Daoist Scripture and Schools

The full corpus of Daoist scripture is called the “Sandong”, and includes the following texts:

1. Dongzhengbu
2. Shangqing Jing
3. Dongshengbu and many other ritual texts.

According to the findings of Chinese scholars, the term “Sandong” first appeared during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 CE) when Buddhism spread in China. Following the term used for the Buddhist canon “Sanzang” (‘Tripitaka’ in Sanskrit), the Daoists named their collection “Sandong”, referred to today as “Daozang”.

‘Three Laughs at Tiger Brook’, a litang style painting from the 12th Century Song Dynasty. It shows three men laughing by the river, representative of the harmony between China’s three main religions: Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism.

The Daoist scholar Qing Xitai and many others also asserted that Daoists, especially those of the Lingbao School, borrowed many ideas and thoughts from Buddhist scripture when writing their own scripture. For example, a lot of the Daoist Lingbao Jing text was borrowed from the Buddhist Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which was translated into Chinese by the Indian monk Dharmaksema during the Northern Liang Dynasty (414-21 CE).

Qing Xitai also mentioned that the Zhongxuan Sect of the Daoist tradition was greatly influenced by the Buddhist Mahayana Prajnaparamita literature and Tiantai School, which was one of the leading Buddhist schools during the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE). Zhongxuan literally translates as ’emphasis on metaphysics’ and was formed in the early Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). It went on to become an important school of thought in Daoism.

(2) Ideas and Theories

The central deity in the Daoist Lingbao School, Yuanshi Tianzun, flanked by his two attendants

The Buddhist teachings on karma and rebirth influenced Daoism, especially its description of heaven and hell. Daoists borrowed and incorporated many Buddhist terms into their teachings, and even mixed the Buddhist concept of karma and rebirth with the Daoist theory of Chengfu. This is the theory that future generations suffer from the consequences of the forefathers’ bad deeds, and was used to understand human misfortune in the world. They also adopted the Buddhist concept of Samsara or cyclic existence, which was not found in Chinese philosophy before the introduction of Buddhism.

The Lingbao School also worshiped a central deity, called Yuanshi Tianzun, combining the indigenous creator god Shangqing with the Buddha. The Daoists also reformed their cosmological model after the Buddhist system, asserting a total of 32 heavens, similar to the Buddhist concept of Trayastrimsa or the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

(3) Monasticism

A rare photograph of Chinese Buddhist monks during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE)

Buddhism also influenced the establishment of the Daoist monastic system. Based on Qing Xitai’s findings, the historical figure Lu Xiujing (406–77 CE) reformed the Tianshi School of Daoism by incorporating various Buddhist ideas prevalent in the monastic system into the establishment of Daoist precepts. The well-known Daoist Tao Hongjing (456–536 CE) openly stated that the Buddha had prophesied him to be born as a bodhisattva, a being who can achieve complete liberation from suffering but delays doing so due to the compassionate motivation to help all other sentient beings out of their suffering as well. Tao Hongjing made vows to observe the Daoist Five Precepts (to refrain from 1. killing, 2. stealing, 3. sexual misconduct, 4. lying and 5. consuming intoxicants) in front of a Buddhist stupa built by the Indian Emperor Ashoka. In doing so, Daoists officially established their system of precepts and by extension monasticism based on the Buddhist one.

(4) Ritual

An illustration of a Daoist ritual for the dead, from the Chinese novel The Plum in the Golden Vase, circa 1700 CE. Scanned from Taoism and the Arts of China by Stephen Little. (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago. 2000. Page 192)

Daoist ritual was also influenced by Buddhism. Tantra was introduced to China in the mid-Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)  by Subhakarasimha (637-735 CE), Vajrabodhi (671-741 CE), and Amoghavajra (705-74 CE). They translated many Buddhist tantric texts and introduced complicated tantric rituals, including various mandalas and mudras (hand gestures). Many of the Daoist rituals created at that time incorporated these rituals without modification. Daoists also began praying to several new guardian gods and protectors based on the Buddhist concept of a Bodhisattva and incorporated them into their various rituals. On the other hand, Buddhism in China itself was also influenced by Daoism as many terms were incorporated into the translation of Buddhist scripture. It was after this exchange of ideas that Daoism became an institutionalised religion with all the necessary religious elements.

Buddhist Inspired Religious Movements in History

Another painting showing harmony between practitioners of China’s three main religions: Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism.

As Buddhism gradually integrated into Chinese culture and was accepted, many popular religious movements were formed throughout history, such as the White Lotus Society and the White Cloud Society. These movements appeared during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) and continued through the Ming (1368–1644 CE) and even Qing (1644 to 1912 CE) Dynasties.

The White Lotus Society was established by Mao Zhiyuan as a society devoted to the recitation of the name of the Buddha Amitabha and practices leading to the Buddhist Western Pure Land. Mao advocated vegetarianism and the society’s teachings focused on the purification of the mind, so that practitioners could be reborn in the Pure Land. Both the cultivation of the mind, and the practices associated with achieving entry to the Pure Land were to be engaged in concurrently.

The society spread so fast it caught the attention of the Song government. Its founder was caught and expelled from the country for three years but was then allowed back and conferred a title by Emperor Gaozong. It was then that the society once again flourished in the country.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 CE), the White Lotus Society incorporated Chinese folk beliefs and spread rapidly, again attracting the government’s attention. According to the Yuan Shi or History of Yuan text, the society was banned in 1308, their monasteries destroyed and practitioners forced to return to lay life.

Later, Pudu, a Buddhist monk from Lushan, wrote the Lushan Lianzong Baojian text to explain the society’s doctrine. A few of the upper-classes supported his views, and so the society was once again allowed to spread among the people. It spread fast amongst the public, but its teachings morphed to instigate and stir up feelings against Yuan rule, leading to the fall of the Dynasty.

On the other hand, the White Cloud Society was originally a branch of the Buddhist Huayan School. Towards the end of the Song Dynasty, a monk from a White Cloud monastery, Kong Qingjue (1043-1121 CE), began to promote vegetarian meals to attract lay people. He considered the Huayanjing (Avatamsaka Sutra) an important Buddhist teaching, but he also advocated the syncretism of three religions, considering Confucianism the icon of loyalty and filial piety; Buddhism the icon of compassion; and Daoism the icon of a simple and quiet life without attachment.

Hand written Dunhuang version of the Avatamsaka Sutra currently kept in the British Library

The Society was considered heretical by the government as male and female practitioners practised together, so it was banished to the far south in 1116, but this banishment was later lifted. The Society diminished in 1202, when its practitioners were found to be practising at night, something which at the time was not considered a proper practice.

Daoan, the Buddhist abbot of Puning Monastery in Hongzhou, added work by the Society to an edition of the Tripitaka, called the Puning Edition, and revived the Society’s practices for a while until it was finally banned in 1320.

In addition to the two movements above, the Wuwei (Non-Action) Sect was founded by Luo Qing (1442-1527 CE). Luo was inspired by Buddhism, studied with various masters, and was particularly interested in Buddhist texts. His teachings were strongly influenced by Chan Buddhism, emphasising the discovery of one’s innate Buddha-nature (Sanskrit: Tathagatagarbha).

This tradition split into four sects after Luo Qing’s death. One of these developed into the popular I-Guan Dao (Consistent Way) that is very much active in Taiwan. Its practice of vegetarianism and worship of Guanyin are also heavily influenced by Buddhism. Apart from I-Guan Dao, the Sanyi Jiao (Three-in-One Teaching) School was founded by Lin Zhao’en (1517-98 CE). He combined the teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, but emphasised the Confucianist and Daoist concepts of internal alchemy, known as Quanzhen (Complete Realization) as opposed to the Buddhist concept of enlightenment.

Buddhist Influence on Popular Belief

Many of the images and iconographic details of the Buddhas, Boddhisattvas and Arhats were introduced to China at the same time Buddhist texts were. Some of these Buddhas and Bodhisattvas became quite popular amongst the Chinese people, who incorporated them into popular culture, turning them into Chinese gods. For example, Guanyin, the Chinese version of Avalokiteshvara; Mile, the Chinese version of Maitreya; and Dizang, the Chinese version of Ksitigarbha.

Guanyin (Avalokitesvara)

Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, is the most popular Buddhist Bodhisattva worshiped by Chinese people all around the world. Guanyin became popular in the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 CE) and her popularity in China and East Asia continues to this day. Guanyin is also worshiped in Daoism as the True Man of Compassion or Great Person of Compassion. Within the Lingbao texts of the Daoist tradition, Guanyin was transformed into Jiuku Tianzun (Heavenly Venerable Saviour from Suffering).

Milefo (Maitreya)

Milefo is the second most popular Buddhist Bodhisattva worshiped by the Chinese. He is also known as the Laughing Buddha; Mile with a Bag; Mile with a Big Belly; the Happy Buddha; the Peace Buddha; the Buddha of Good Fortune; and the Buddha of Wealth, etc.

According to Buddhist scripture, Maitreya currently resides in Tushita Heaven, where Lama Tsongkhapa also resides. Maitreya will appear on earth in the future to teach the Dharma again and bring us out of suffering when the world is dark and peoples’ delusions have worsened incredibly. He will become the next Buddha in our world. Iconographically, Maitreya sits upright and forward in full readiness to arrive and teach all beings, and his form resembles humans of this world. He will manifest in that way to help beings on earth to overcome their suffering.

Engaging in the practice of Maitreya now is said to assure practitioners the chance to become one of his foremost disciples when he teaches in the future. Many Buddhist practitioners, including the eminent Buddhist monk Daoan, vowed to be reborn in Tushita Heaven to be near Maitreya. Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, many people have been inspired to use Maitreya’s image. From politicians and various cult leaders, people have used his future enlightenment to propagate their own versions of his arrival and to somehow legitimise any claims they made.

I-Guan Dao is one of the many popular Chinese religions that adopted Maitreya as their main deity and have asserted the reincarnations of their masters such as their 17th Patriarch Lu Zhongyi (1849-1925 CE), are in fact none other than Maitreya himself.

According to the Biography of Eminent Monks, during the late Five Dynasties (907–60 CE), there was a Buddhist monk, named Qici, who had a big belly. He often travelled around the Zhejiang province with a bag and begged for a living, so people called him Budai Heshang, which means the monk with a bag. Just before his death, Qici composed a stanza that reads: “Maitreya is a real Buddha, who manifests uncountable transformed bodies. Manifests constantly before living beings who are unable to recognize them.” Thus, people identified him as being Maitreya. According to Zhuang Chuo from the Song Dynasty, many made statues of Qici and worshiped him as Maitreya during that time.

This tradition was adopted into Chinese Buddhism. We often see the Laughing Buddha being placed in the first shrine room as we enter a Chinese Buddhist monastery or temple. In 1098, the Song Dynasty Emperor Zhezong gave Maitreya an official title, the Great Master Dingying, which completely transformed the image of Maitreya into the Laughing Buddha.

The belief in Milefo continued to grow and became much more popular. Many texts were produced as a result, including Mile Sanhui Ji (Record of Maitreya’s Three Meetings), Longhua Huiji (Record of Longhua Meeting), Mile Sung (Praises of Maitreya), Milefoshuo Dizang Shiwang Baojuan (Treasure Scroll of Dizang and the Ten Kings preached by Maitreya Buddha), Dasheng Mile Huadu Baojuan (Treasure Scroll of the Great Saint Maitreya’s Conversion), Milefo Chuxi Baojuan (Treasure Scroll of Maitreya’s Appearance in the West), Budai Jing (Scripture of Budai), Mile Gufojiao Pian (The Ancient Buddha Maitreya’s Teaching), etc.

Today, Milefo or Maitreya is usually depicted in Chinese art as a laughing monk with a big belly to symbolise the spirit of open-mindedness and tolerance. The Chinese believe it represents the humanistic, practical, and happy attitude of life with a spirit to promote peace and prosperity in society.

Amitofo (Amitabha Buddha)

The Buddha Amitabha (centre) in his Western Pure Land, with his attendants.

Amitofo is the most prominent deity in Pure Land Buddhism. According to the Wuliangshou Jing (Sukhavativyuha Sutra), there was a king who met Guan Zizaiwang Rulai (Tathagata Lokesvararaja), and renounced the world after learning the Buddha’s teaching. He became a monk, called Dharmakara, and made forty-eight vows to save people by creating a Pure Land. His 18th vow reads: 

“If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten quarters who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and call my name, even ten times, should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five gravest offences and abuse the right Dharma.”

After he attained enlightenment, he was named Amita or Amitabha, which means “infinite light”, and the Pure Land he created is called the Sukhavati (in Sanskrit), which means the Western Paradise. Those who follow the Pure Land tradition recite the name of Amitabha Buddha, wishing to be born in his Pure Land according to his 18th vow.

The two Bodhisattvas assistants of Amitabha Buddha are Guanyin (Avalokitesvara) and Dashizhi (Mahasthamaprapta). Together, with Amitabha, they are called the Three Saints of the West. The popularity of Amitabha in Chinese society is evident by the popular saying: “There are Amitabhas and Avalokitesvaras enshrined by each and every family”.

The practice of Amitabha is extremely important in Chinese religion and culture. When a person is close to death or has already passed on, often times family members, friends and even other volunteers chant the name of Amitabha and dedicated the merits to the dying person. This is done because they have the wish for him or her to be born in the Western Paradise. Family members also visit Buddhist monasteries to ask monks to perform rituals for the dead, including chanting of the name of Amitabha and the recitation of the short version of the Amitabha Sutra.

Belief in the Hells and its Ten Kings

The Bodhisattva Ksitigarba and his two attendants, flanked by the Ten Kings of Hell.

According to Tang Yijian, a Chinese scholar, there was no belief in future lives in indigenous Chinese thought (Tang 1999, 164). The ancient Chinese believed that we go to hell when we die, but their idea of hell was quite vague. They believed in what was known as Taishan or Fengdu. According to the Shanguo Zhi text (History of the Three Kingdoms), Taishan was a place reserved for the governing of ghosts, not human beings (Chen 1964, 826). According to the ancient Book of Bowuzhi, Taishan was personified as the grandson of Heaven, and was in charge of all ghosts. Similarly, belief in Fengdu as the realm of ghosts can be found in Daoist books such as Ge Hong’s (284–363 CE) Zhenzhongshu and Tao Hongjing’s (456– 536 CE) Zhenlin Weiye Tu. Both of these figures were eminent Daoists in Chinese history.

However, one distinguishing feature compared to other belief systems is that hell is situated in the same realm as human beings. There was also a belief that there were many beings or deities in charge of the ‘departments’ or ‘offices’ for the different ‘districts’ of existence. This included hell, which was simply another ‘department’.

The introduction of hell as a separate realm came about through the introduction of Buddhism, and the various descriptions found in its scriptures. For example, the Dirga Agama text, translated into Chinese by Zhu Fonian in 413 CE includes a full description of hell. The popular belief in the 18 hells, however, was introduced to China during the 2nd Century, when An Shigao translated the Niraya Sutra, with its detailed description of the realm. The belief became popular during the Northen and Southern Dynasties, as the term ‘Eighteen Hells’ was mentioned in a story about Liu Sahe, recorded down in the Liang History Book.

Due to both the influence of indigenous beliefs and the introduction of Buddhism, a unique concept of the hells formed within Chinese culture. As Daoshi described it in his book Fayuan Zhulin (Forest of Gems in the Garden of the Dharma) compiled in 668 CE, there are 18 hells, with Yama (the God of Death) as their king, who commands 18 ministers that govern the realms. Therefore, today the belief in 18 hells is a combination of both Buddhist and Daoist tradition.

According to indigenous Chinese belief, the King of Eastern Mountain is the chieftain who governs hell. But in the Buddhist texts, Yama is described as the King of the Hells. This belief was originally found in the ancient Indian Hindu text known as the Yajur Veda. In it, he is known as Yamaraja, and Buddhism absorbed belief in this deity into their own cosmological system. The belief in Yama became widespread only during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. As the Biography of Han Qinhu in the Sui History text recounts, General Han Qinhu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty even made vows to be reborn as Yama, the King of the Hells.

A full description of the 10 Kings of Hell can be found in two versions of the apocryphal Scripture on the Ten Kings, which were written by a Buddhist monk, name Zangchuan. These were known as the Dizang Pusa Faxin Yingyuan Shiwang Jing (Scripture of the Ten Kings about the Causes of Kitigarbha Bodhisattva’s Taking of Vows) and Yanlouwang Shouji Linsizhong Nixiu Sheng Qizhai Gongde Wangsheng Jingtu Jing (Sutra of Yama’s Prediction that Allows the Fourfold Assembly to Practice the Seven Types of Rituals in Reverse to be Reborn in a Pure Land) which were both found in Dunhuang.

The Bodhisattva Ksitigarba with his two assistants, with the Ten Kings of Hell in attendance.

According to Stephen Teiser, the apocryphal Scripture on the Ten Kings came into being during the late 10th Century. After belief in them became stronger, they were considered to be subjects of the King of Eastern Mountain. Daoism however, assimilated the Buddhist idea of Yama and the 18 hells, and this view became popular during the Tang Dynasty. It is believed that there are 10 courts in the hell realms, each with its own king to pass judgement. The names of these kings are a fascinating blend of names of historical figures and those from Buddhist scriptures. They are (1) Qinguang, (2) Chujiang, (3) Songdi, (4) Wuguan, (5) Yanluo, (6) Biancheng, (7) Taishan, (8) Pingzheng, (9) Dushi, and (10) Zhuanlun. However, some lists enumerate them differently.

According to the scholar Zhiru, medieval sources indicate that by the end of the 8th Century, the worship of Dizang or the Buddhist Bodhisattva Ksitigarba, was incorporated into cults surrounding death and the afterlife. This was especially true in areas such as Dunhuang and Sichuan, where the Bodhisattva shows up frequently in portrayals of judgement in the afterlife. (Zhiru 2007, 198).

This Bodhisattva is well-known for his great vow to save beings suffering in the hells realms as recounted in the Sutra on the Original Vows of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha, which is fundamentally a teaching concerning karmic retribution. It graphically describes the consequences of committing undesirable actions. His heroic vow reads: “Not until the hells are emptied will I become a Buddha.”

The Bodhisattva Ksitigarba

Dizang normally appears in hell as an intercessor; a ray of mercy and redemption in the afterlife’s judiciary process over which the Ten Kings preside. People believe that his worship during the Ghost Festival can save the suffering of their relatives in the afterlife because Dizang even has the capability of opening the doors to the hells, allowing the relatives respite or to receive offerings made for them.

In Daoist theology, the role of Dizang as Bodhisattva of the underworld was assumed by the deity Jiuku Tianzun. The cults of Dizang and Jiuku Tianzun offered people solace as they gave hope that the net of karma could be avoided through contrition, repentance, and faith in the power of a compassionate saviour.

The Mother Delivering Children

There is another belief that influenced Chinese religion, and that is the belief in the mother of a child ghost. This came about from Buddhist tradition which speaks of a female ghost or ogress known as Hariti. She had five hundred children of her own, but used to eat other people’s children. Upon hearing this, Buddha Shakyamuni appeared and hid her youngest child. She could not find him anywhere and distraught asked Shakyamuni for help. He taught her to compare herself with other women who also have children. She realised her wrong deeds and instead became a powerful protector of children. She is worshiped in China by those who are childless and want offspring. She is appeased in the form of a mother who delivers children; middle-aged with many children around her, and at least one child in her arms.

Jigong, the Living Buddha

Jigong is the honourable name for the Buddhist monk Jidian. His lay name was Li Xiuyuan and he lived during the Song Dynasty. Because of his good deeds helping people, he was named the Living Buddha Jigong after he died. He was a descendant of a military marshal, Lee Wenhe, from the Tiantai area. When he was 18 years old, he became a monk at Lingyin Monastery in Hangzhou, under his master, Huiyuan. Even though he was a monk, he did not follow the discipline of the monastery. He drank wine and eat meat; his speech was crude and his behaviour crazy. Other monks did not like him and thought to expel him from the monastery. However, his kind master kept him near until the master died. After that Jigong was expelled from Lingyin Monastery and moved to Jingci monastery, where he remained until his death in 1209.

According to legend, he had magical powers that he used to help people by curing their illnesses or predicting accidents, etc. As a result, people loved him and thought he was the incarnation of a Buddhist arhat, who had tamed a dragon. Thus, belief in Jigong became popular, and there are many folk stories about his life and legend. By the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, many storytellers propagated Jigong’s thaumaturgical stories. All the material enriched Jigong’s original history. Today, Jigong’s story is portrayed in TV shows popular in Taiwan, Mainland China, and the Tibetan Autonomous Region.

Jigong is an important figure in popular religion, as many sects regard him as a deity. For example, when people ‘Call Upon the Gods’ or hold the ‘Flying Phoenix Ritual’, Jigong is one of the major deities who possesses the mediums present. In I-Guan Dao, the disciples call Jigong ‘Lao Shi’, the ‘master’ or ‘teacher’, and they believe I-Guan Dao’s founder, Zhang Tianran, was the incarnation of Jigong. Another famous sect, Ci Hui Tang, incorporates the belief in mediums who are possessed by Jigong. In popular religion, although Jigong is not the highest god, he is a benevolent messenger who helps people.

Festivals Influenced by Buddhism

Many festivals in China are influenced by Buddhist teachings, such as the Buddha’s birthday, which falls on the 8th day of the fourth month in the Chinese lunar calendar. Of course, it is mainly celebrated in Buddhist monasteries throughout China, but ordinary people, who are not particularly Buddhist, also attend the celebrations.

The second is the Yulanpen Festival, popularly known as the Ghost Festival, which is celebrated on the 15th day of the seventh month in the Chinese lunar calendar. The name Yulanpen is a Buddhist term from the Yulanpen Jing or Ullambana Sutra, which tells a story of how Maudgalyayana, a disciple of the Buddha, saved his mother from hell. It is a text that teaches filial piety. This festival became quite popular in the Tang Dynasty. Daoism also has its own festival, called Zhongyuan, celebrated on the same day with the same purpose – to save all souls from hell. Today, this festival is celebrated by all Chinese people, regardless of whether they are religious or not, because it is considered a form of ancestor worship.

The third is the Laba Festival, which falls on the 8th day of the twelfth month in the Chinese lunar calendar. La means the end of the year, when the ancient Chinese made offerings to gods and ancestors for good fortune and blessings. Eight gods were worshipped during this time, such as the God of Harvest and the Insect God. After the introduction of Buddhism, it was made known that Buddha Shakyamuni attained enlightenment on the 8th day of the twelfth month, by meditating under a bodhi tree after eating congee (or the Indian equivalent; rice pudding) offered to him by a young lady. This took place after six long and futile years of mistaken ascetic practices. In commemoration of the event, Chinese monasteries began offering congee every year on this day. Thus, it became a tradition for people to enjoy bowls of congee for good luck and happiness. The Laba Festival therefore, has both indigenous and Buddhist characteristics.

Funerary Practices

A central practice amongst the Chinese is to bury the dead in a thick coffin, as it is believed to be a filial act towards their deceased family member, as explained in the classic Chinese text Xiaojing. However, the practice of cremation was gradually accepted as Buddhism became an integral part of Chinese culture.

Buddhism, however, does not specify if a body should be cremated or buried as either a way to reach heaven, ensure a good rebirth, or as a crucial ritual act in treating the dead. Buddhist liberation has nothing to do with how a corpse is handled because the Buddhist attitude to the physical body is that it has only instrumental value. That being said, as Buddhists practiced cremation in India and they brought the tradition to China, it became widespread.

Beginning in the 10th Century, many people willingly gave up the long-established custom of burying bodies in coffins to follow the practice of cremating bodies and scattering the ashes over water, storing them in urns above ground, or burying the urn in a small grave. Throughout the Song Dynasty and its successor, the Yuan Dynasty founded by Mongol conquerors, cremation flourished, despite strong objections by the state and the educated Confucian elite. (Ebrey 1990, 406)

A Song Dynasty Chinese elite, Hong Mai (1123–1202 CE), stated in his work titled Rongzhai Suibi:

Once the Buddhist theory of transformation by fire arose, everywhere, there have been people who burn the corpse after death. When the weather is hot, out of dread of the foul secretions, they invariably lay out [the body] before the day is over and burn it before the flesh is cold. (Ebrey 1990, 410)

Of course, cremation was only an alternative. Many people still preferred to bury the dead. Cremation was preferred due to economic reasons, as there was a shortage of land for burial available to poor city dwellers, but others followed which ever custom they liked. According to a study by Ebrey, Buddhism provided the institutions necessary for the spread of cremation, as all the recorded crematoria were run by Buddhist temples. Some Buddhist temples even provided storage for the ash remains, and others had pools of water where they could be scattered. However, the practice of cremation declined from the Ming Dynasty due to criticism by the Confucians and government intervention.

The Confucians from the Song Dynasty argued cremation was a foreign custom introduced with Buddhism, and it was cruel, a desecration of the corpse, barbaric, and not filial. The well-known Neo-Confucian philosopher, Cheng Yi (1033–1107 CE), argued cremation was a severe way to handle a corpse: “Today if a fool or drunkard accidentally hits the coffin of a person’s ancestor, he will take great offense and want revenge. Yet, he may personally drag his parents and toss them into the flames, finding nothing odd in it”. Another Neo-Confucian, Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE), also rejected cremation as an unacceptable practice. It was perhaps motivated by the Confucians that the Song government issued codes to prohibit cremation, but it was difficult to enforce. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the government’s codes became severe, and social control became more pervasive, so cremation declined rapidly. The practice of cremation continued, but it was confined to special circumstances, such as amongst Buddhist monks and nuns; and dead lepers, who were burnt to prevent disease.

Over time, however, cremation became a major practice as people became more aware that the physical body is just a natural product of their parents, and cremation is more environmentally friendly than other means of disposing the dead.

Conclusion

The Buddhist influence on popular Chinese belief, especially amongst Daoist practitioners is very strong. Many Buddhist ideas and practices; and images of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were incorporated into popular religious practices in China. Today, these Buddhist elements are seen in many areas of religious practice, however few people recognise them as such, though they have played a major role in Chinese religious traditions throughout the course of Buddhist history in China.

 
Sources:

• https://www.quora.com/How-did-Buddhism-spread
• http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat3/sub11/item94.html
• https://classroom.synonym.com/how-did-buddhist-beliefs-impact-chinese-thoughts-12087528.html
• https://classroom.synonym.com/cultural-diffusion-silk-route-ancient-china-6945.html
• https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion/
• https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/buddhism.htm
• https://www.ancient.eu/article/891/religion-in-ancient-china/
• https://mediadiversified.org/2013/11/14/photo-gallery-taiwan-through-the-lens-of-the-people/11-prayers-and-incense-offered-at-longshan-temple-both-buddhist-and-taoist-by-benedict-young/
• http://taoisttalisman.blogspot.rs/2006/
• http://www.goodorient.com/blog/?p=481
• https://www.thoughtco.com/the-three-purities-of-taoism-3182932

 
For more interesting information:

• Mount Wutai – The Earthly Abode of Lord Manjushri
• Ku Shulan, Goddess of Paper Cut
• Longkou Nanshan Giant Buddha | 龙口南山大佛
• Guhya Manjushri | 密德文殊室利佛
• 900 Years Old Dafo Temple of the Grand Reclining Buddha in China
• 10 Significant Chinese Buddhist Scholars
• Su Shi: The Song Dynasty Poet and Chan Buddhism Enthusiast
• An Shigao: The Legendary Monk-Prince of Parthia
• Amazing Xuanzang and His Journey to the West
• Wonderful Wu Tai Shan – Manjushri’s holy place

Please support us so that we can continue to bring you more Dharma:

If you are in the United States, please note that your offerings and contributions are tax deductible. ~ the tsemrinpoche.com blog team